Synagogue Rule in First Century Palestine
The Greek word, συναγωγή (sunagogi aka synagogue), comes from the idea of gathering. Although the King James translators aimed to avoid using the cognate word for Christian assemblies, the Greek word is used of Christian assemblies in James 2:2 (For if there come unto your assembly a man with a gold ring, in goodly apparel, and there come in also a poor man in vile raiment;).
Furthermore, we see that the early Christians continued to meet in synagogues during the time of the Sauline persecution:
Acts 22:19 And I said, Lord, they know that I imprisoned and beat in every synagogue them that believed on thee:
Acts 26:11 And I punished them oft in every synagogue, and compelled them to blaspheme; and being exceedingly mad against them, I persecuted them even unto strange cities.
"Synagogue-Ruler"
The documentation on synagogue leadership during second temple Judaism is more limited than one might like. There is, however, one role that stands out among others, the ἀρχισυνάγωγος (archisunagogos), usually translated in the KJV as "ruler of the synagogue." The translation is defensible from the evident etymology from ἄρχων ("archon" or a similar word denoting source or primacy) and συναγωγή (sunagogi aka synagogue).
This "ruler of the synagogue" role is described using the term archisunagogos in five passages (two of which are synoptic):
Mark 5:21-23&35-39
21 And when Jesus was passed over again by ship unto the other side, much people gathered unto him: and he was nigh unto the sea. 22 And, behold, there cometh one of the rulers of the synagogue (ἀρχισυναγώγων), Jairus by name; and when he saw him, he fell at his feet, 23 And besought him greatly, saying, My little daughter lieth at the point of death: [I pray thee], come and lay thy hands on her, that she may be healed; and she shall live. [24-34 Jesus heals the woman with the issue of blood] 35 While he yet spake, there came from the ruler of the synagogue's (ἀρχισυναγώγου) [house certain] which said, Thy daughter is dead: why troublest thou the Master any further? 36 As soon as Jesus heard the word that was spoken, he saith unto the ruler of the synagogue (ἀρχισυναγώγῳ), Be not afraid, only believe. 37 And he suffered no man to follow him, save Peter, and James, and John the brother of James. 38 And he cometh to the house of the ruler of the synagogue (ἀρχισυναγώγου), and seeth the tumult, and them that wept and wailed greatly. 39 And when he was come in, he saith unto them, Why make ye this ado, and weep? the damsel is not dead, but sleepeth.
A small but important point is this: the phrase in English is a bit ambiguous as it seems to imply that "the synagogue" (singular) has "rulers" (plural). Even if that's true, the Greek doesn't imply it. The Greek is just saying that one of the archisunagogos came to Jesus. Perhaps a more clear wording would be "one of the synagogue rulers cometh ..." or the like.
There is no similar issue in the synoptic account in Luke:
Luke 8:40-50
40 And it came to pass, that, when Jesus was returned, the people [gladly] received him: for they were all waiting for him. 41 And, behold, there came a man named Jairus, and he was a ruler of the synagogue (ἄρχων τῆς συναγωγῆς): and he fell down at Jesus' feet, and besought him that he would come into his house: 42 For he had one only daughter, about twelve years of age, and she lay a dying. But as he went the people thronged him. [43-48 Jesus heals the woman with the issue of blood] 49 While he yet spake, there cometh one from the ruler of the synagogue's (ἀρχισυναγώγου) [house], saying to him, Thy daughter is dead; trouble not the Master. 50 But when Jesus heard [it], he answered him, saying, Fear not: believe only, and she shall be made whole.
Luke also contains another reference, in a very different context, to this synagogue ruler position:
Luke 13:10-17
10 And he was teaching in one of the synagogues on the sabbath. 11 And, behold, there was a woman which had a spirit of infirmity eighteen years, and was bowed together, and could in no wise lift up [herself]. 12 And when Jesus saw her, he called [her to him], and said unto her, Woman, thou art loosed from thine infirmity. 13 And he laid [his] hands on her: and immediately she was made straight, and glorified God. 14 And the ruler of the synagogue (ἀρχισυνάγωγος) answered with indignation, because that Jesus had healed on the sabbath day, and said unto the people, There are six days in which men ought to work: in them therefore come and be healed, and not on the sabbath day. 15 The Lord then answered him, and said, [Thou] hypocrite, doth not each one of you on the sabbath loose his ox or [his] ass from the stall, and lead [him] away to watering? 16 And ought not this woman, being a daughter of Abraham, whom Satan hath bound, lo, these eighteen years, be loosed from this bond on the sabbath day? 17 And when he had said these things, all his adversaries were ashamed: and all the people rejoiced for all the glorious things that were done by him.
Notice carefully that this synagogue rulership role was consistent with Jesus teaching there, although this leader seems to have considered it appropriate to correct Jesus' work as a healer.
Acts 13:13-15
13 Now when Paul and his company loosed from Paphos, they came to Perga in Pamphylia: and John departing from them returned to Jerusalem. 14 But when they departed from Perga, they came to Antioch in Pisidia, and went into the synagogue (συναγωγὴν) on the sabbath day, and sat down. 15 And after the reading of the law and the prophets the rulers of the synagogue (ἀρχισυνάγωγοι) sent unto them, saying, [Ye] men [and] brethren, if ye have any word of exhortation for the people, say on.
Notice that in this case there are multiple synagogue-rulers of one synagogue. The next passage in Acts suggests the same kind of arrangement in another city:
Acts 18:7-17
7 And he departed thence, and entered into a certain [man's] house, named Justus, [one] that worshipped God, whose house joined hard to the synagogue (συναγωγῇ). 8 And Crispus, the chief ruler of the synagogue (ἀρχισυνάγωγος), believed on the Lord with all his house; and many of the Corinthians hearing believed, and were baptized. 9 Then spake the Lord to Paul in the night by a vision, Be not afraid, but speak, and hold not thy peace: 10 For I am with thee, and no man shall set on thee to hurt thee: for I have much people in this city. 11 And he continued [there] a year and six months, teaching the word of God among them. 12 And when Gallio was the deputy of Achaia, the Jews made insurrection with one accord against Paul, and brought him to the judgment seat, 13 Saying, This [fellow] persuadeth men to worship God contrary to the law. 14 And when Paul was now about to open [his] mouth, Gallio said unto the Jews, If it were a matter of wrong or wicked lewdness, O [ye] Jews, reason would that I should bear with you: 15 But if it be a question of words and names, and [of] your law, look ye [to it]; for I will be no judge of such [matters]. 16 And he drave them from the judgment seat. 17 Then all the Greeks took Sosthenes, the chief ruler of the synagogue (ἀρχισυνάγωγον), and beat [him] before the judgment seat. And Gallio cared for none of those things.
Notice that both Crispus and Sosthenes have the same title, presumably in the same Corinthians synagogue. This, admittedly, is less clear than Acts 13, but seems to suggest the same arrangement, particularly when read after Acts 13.
"Ruler"
Returning to the account of Jairus, recorded in Mark 5 and Luke 8, Matthew also has an account. In Matthew, however, Jairus is just referred to as a "ruler" (ἄρχων) without the "synagogue" qualification:
Matthew 9:18-24
18 While he spake these things unto them, behold, there came a certain ruler (ἄρχων), and worshipped him, saying, My daughter is even now dead: but come and lay thy hand upon her, and she shall live. 19 And Jesus arose, and followed him, and [so did] his disciples. [20-22 Jesus heals the woman with the issue of blood] 23 And when Jesus came into the ruler's (ἄρχοντος) house, and saw the minstrels and the people making a noise, 24 He said unto them, Give place: for the maid is not dead, but sleepeth. And they laughed him to scorn.
Of course, not all New Testament uses of ἄρχων (archon) are necessarily shorthand for one of the ἀρχισυνάγωγοι (archisunagogoi). For example, Βεελζεβοὺλ (Beelzeboul aka Beelzebub) is described as being the ἄρχων (archon) of the demons (Matthew 12:24 & Luke 11:15, cf. Matthew 9:34 & Mark 3:22 where he is referenced but not named). Presumably this is the same ἄρχων (archon) of the world mentioned in John 12:31, 14:30, and 16:11. Likewise, this may be the same ἄρχοντα τῆς ἐξουσίας τοῦ ἀέρος (prince of the power of the air) that is mentioned in Ephesians 2:2. There is also reference to the leaders of the heathen, which I discuss below.
Focusing on the references within the Jewish word, there is reference to an ἄρχων (archon) as a judicial figure (Luke 12:58), where it seems to be a synonym for κριτής (kritis meaning judge).
There are also several other uses of individual Israelites referred to as an ἄρχων (archon):
Luke 14:1 And it came to pass, as he went into the house of one of the chief (ἀρχόντων) Pharisees to eat bread on the sabbath day, that they watched him.
Luke 18:18 And a certain ruler (ἄρχων) asked him, saying, Good Master, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?
John 3:1 There was a man of the Pharisees, named Nicodemus, a ruler (ἄρχων) of the Jews:
Acts 7:27 But he that did his neighbour wrong thrust him away, saying, Who made thee a ruler (ἄρχοντα) and a judge (δικαστὴν) over us?
Acts 7:35 This Moses whom they refused, saying, Who made thee a ruler (ἄρχοντα) and a judge (δικαστὴν)? the same did God send to be a ruler (ἄρχοντα) and a deliverer (λυτρωτὴν) by the hand of the angel which appeared to him in the bush.
Acts 23:1-5
1 And Paul, earnestly beholding the council (συνεδρίῳ), said, Men [and] brethren, I have lived in all good conscience before God until this day. 2 And the high priest (ἀρχιερεὺς) Ananias commanded them that stood by him to smite him on the mouth. 3 Then said Paul unto him, God shall smite thee, [thou] whited wall: for sittest thou (κάθῃ) to judge (κρίνων) me after the law, and commandest me to be smitten contrary to the law? 4 And they that stood by said, Revilest thou God's high priest (ἀρχιερέα)? 5 Then said Paul, I wist not, brethren, that he was the high priest (ἀρχιερεύς): for it is written, Thou shalt not speak evil of the ruler (Ἄρχοντα) of thy people.
The main takeaway from this study is that "ruler" itself was not necessarily a synonym for the ruler of the synagogue, but could broadly encompass any kind of authority figure. It is interesting that Paul seems to recognize that Ananias is part of the Sanhedrin but did not consider him a "ruler" until he was informed that he was an arch-priest.
The plural references are likewise somewhat inconsistent:
Luke 23:13 And Pilate, when he had called together the chief priests (ἀρχιερεῖς) and the rulers (ἄρχοντας) and the people (λαὸν),
Luke 23:35 And the people stood beholding. And the rulers (ἄρχοντες) also with them derided him, saying, He saved others; let him save himself, if he be Christ, the chosen of God.
Luke 24:20 And how the chief priests (ἀρχιερεῖς) and our rulers (ἄρχοντες) delivered him to be condemned to death, and have crucified him.
John 7:26 But, lo, he speaketh boldly, and they say nothing unto him. Do the rulers (ἄρχοντες) know indeed that this is the very Christ?
John 7:48 Have any of the rulers (ἀρχόντων) or of the Pharisees believed on him?
John 12:42 Nevertheless among the chief rulers (ἀρχόντων) also many believed on him; but because of the Pharisees they did not confess him, lest they should be put out of the synagogue (ἀποσυνάγωγοι):
Acts 3:17 And now, brethren, I wot that through ignorance ye did it, as did also your rulers (ἄρχοντες).
Acts 4:1-8
1 And as they spake unto the people (λαὸν), the priests (ἱερεῖς), and the captain of the temple (στρατηγὸς τοῦ ἱεροῦ), and the Sadducees, came upon them, 2 Being grieved that they taught the people, and preached through Jesus the resurrection from the dead. 3 And they laid hands on them, and put [them] in hold unto the next day: for it was now eventide. 4 Howbeit many of them which heard the word believed; and the number of the men was about five thousand. 5 And it came to pass on the morrow, that their rulers (ἄρχοντας), and elders (πρεσβυτέρους), and scribes (γραμματεῖς), 6 And Annas the high priest (ἀρχιερεὺς), and Caiaphas, and John, and Alexander, and as many as were of the kindred of the high priest (ἀρχιερατικοῦ), were gathered together at Jerusalem. 7 And when they had set them in the midst, they asked, By what power, or by what name, have ye done this? 8 Then Peter, filled with the Holy Ghost, said unto them, Ye rulers (Ἄρχοντες) of the people (λαοῦ), and elders (πρεσβύτεροι) of Israel,
Acts 4:26 The kings (βασιλεῖς) of the earth stood up, and the rulers (ἄρχοντες) were gathered together against the Lord (Κυρίου), and against his Christ (Χριστοῦ).
Acts 13:27 For they that dwell at Jerusalem, and their rulers (ἄρχοντες), because they knew him not, nor yet the voices of the prophets which are read every sabbath day, they have fulfilled them in condemning him.
One observation comes from John 12:42, where people are identified as rulers but nevertheless are worried about being de-synagogued, a concept discussed further below. This implies that the leadership they exercised was not monarchical but either democratic (through consent of the people) or more likely synodal/presbyterian (as Jesus was popular among the people, but less so among the elite).
Another observation is that in some places there seems to be a line drawn between the archpriests and rulers and a second line between those two groups and the people.
A further observation is the fact that Peter seems to use "rulers of the people" and "elders" in parallel. It's hard to be dogmatic about whether he's using them distinctively or a rhetorical piling on.
As promised above, there are some references that are not necessarily to Israelites. For example, there is a reference to rulers in Acts 14:5, which seems to be contextually ambiguous as to whether it means the specifically Jewish rulers or the rulers of Iconium. There are some further references to the heathen rulers with the same word (with some additional discussion in the comparison to Christianity section farther below):
Acts 16:19 And when her masters saw that the hope of their gains was gone, they caught Paul and Silas, and drew them into the marketplace unto the rulers (ἄρχοντας),
Romans 13:3 For rulers (ἄρχοντες) are not a terror to good works, but to the evil. Wilt thou then not be afraid of the power? do that which is good, and thou shalt have praise of the same:
There is also a case where presumably both Heathen and Israelites were intended:
1 Corinthians 2:6-8
6 Howbeit we speak wisdom among them that are perfect: yet not the wisdom of this world, nor of the princes (ἀρχόντων) of this world (αἰῶνος), that come to nought: 7 But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, [even] the hidden [wisdom], which God ordained before the world unto our glory: 8 Which none of the princes (ἀρχόντων) of this world (αἰῶνος) knew: for had they known [it], they would not have crucified the Lord of glory.
I interpret this as saying that the wisdom of God was hidden from the Great Sanhedrin as well as Herod and Pontius Pilate, perhaps also intending to include Beelzebub among their number.
"De-Synagogued"
The term, ἀποσυνάγωγος (aposunagogos), which means to be expelled from the synagogue, is used thrice in John:
John 9:22 These words spake his parents, because they feared the Jews: for the Jews had agreed (συνετέθειντο) already, that if any man did confess that he was Christ, he should be put out of the synagogue (ἀποσυνάγωγος).
John 12:42 Nevertheless among the chief rulers also many believed on him; but because of the Pharisees they did not confess him, lest they should be put out of the synagogue (ἀποσυνάγωγοι):
John 16:2 They shall put you out of the synagogues (ἀποσυναγώγους): yea, the time cometh, that whosoever killeth you will think that he doeth God service.
This expulsion from the synagogue was a negative consequence that even ordinary people like the blind man's parents (in John 9:22) were worried about. It was something that the rulers themselves feared (John 12:42). It was serious to the point that it was mentioned in the same breath with martyrdom (John 16:2). To the focus of this study, though, what is notable is that it seems to have been an exercise of authority by agreement, not monarchy.
"Captain of the Temple"
Luke (in Luke and Acts) uses the term στρατηγός (strategos), which is a technical term for general or governor. For example, without "of the temple," the term is used for the colonial leaders of Philippi:
Act 16:19-40
19 And when her masters saw that the hope of their gains was gone, they caught Paul and Silas, and drew [them] into the marketplace unto the rulers (ἄρχοντας), 20 And brought them to the magistrates (στρατηγοῖς), saying, These men, being Jews, do exceedingly trouble our city, 21 And teach customs, which are not lawful for us to receive, neither to observe, being Romans. 22 And the multitude rose up together against them: and the magistrates (στρατηγοὶ) rent off their clothes, and commanded to beat [them]. 23 And when they had laid many stripes upon them, they cast [them] into prison, charging the jailor to keep them safely: 24 Who, having received such a charge, thrust them into the inner prison, and made their feet fast in the stocks. [25-34 Philippian jailor conversion] 35 And when it was day, the magistrates (στρατηγοὶ) sent the serjeants (ῥαβδούχους), saying, Let those men go. 36 And the keeper of the prison told this saying to Paul, The magistrates (στρατηγοὶ) have sent to let you go: now therefore depart, and go in peace. 37 But Paul said unto them, They have beaten us openly uncondemned, being Romans, and have cast [us] into prison; and now do they thrust us out privily? nay verily; but let them come themselves and fetch us out. 38 And the serjeants (ῥαβδοῦχοι) told these words unto the magistrates (στρατηγοῖς): and they feared, when they heard that they were Romans. 39 And they came and besought them, and brought [them] out, and desired [them] to depart out of the city. 40 And they went out of the prison, and entered into [the house of] Lydia: and when they had seen the brethren, they comforted them, and departed.
In this context, the strategois (governors/magistrates) seem to be a more specific designation for the archontas (rulers).
In the other three passages, the references are to the captain(s) of the temple:
Luke 22:4&52 And he went his way, and communed with the chief priests (ἀρχιερεῦσιν) and captains (στρατηγοῖς), how he might betray him unto them. ... Then Jesus said unto the chief priests (ἀρχιερεῖς), and captains of the temple (στρατηγοὺς τοῦ ἱεροῦ), and the elders (πρεσβυτέρους), which were come to him, Be ye come out, as against a thief, with swords and staves?
Acts 4:1 And as they spake unto the people, the priests, and the captain of the temple (στρατηγὸς τοῦ ἱεροῦ), and the Sadducees, came upon them,
[Act 5:24-26 KJV] 24 Now when the high priest and the captain of the temple (στρατηγὸς τοῦ ἱεροῦ) and the chief priests heard these things, they doubted of them whereunto this would grow. 25 Then came one and told them, saying, Behold, the men whom ye put in prison are standing in the temple, and teaching the people. 26 Then went the captain (στρατηγὸς) with the officers (ὑπηρέταις), and brought them without violence: for they feared the people, lest they should have been stoned.
From the context, it seems that the "captain of the temple" is essentially a leader of physical security for the temple. The "officers" seem to represent a subordinate role.
"Officer"
The word ὑπηρέτης (huperetes), often translated as "officer," is portrayed as being a subordinate official in a variety of passages. This makes sense from the etymology of "under" and "to row."
In the majority of the passages, it refers to a subordinate military-type person (the terms "thugs," "henchmen," or "goons" would be too pejorative, while "police officer" would be too formal and limited):
Matthew 5:25 Agree with thine adversary quickly, whiles thou art in the way with him; lest at any time the adversary deliver thee to the judge, and the judge deliver thee to the officer, (ὑπηρέτῃ) and thou be cast into prison.
Matthew 26:58 But Peter followed him afar off unto the high priest's palace, and went in, and sat with the servants (ὑπηρετῶν), to see the end.
Mark 14:54&65 And Peter followed him afar off, even into the palace of the high priest: and he sat with the servants (ὑπηρετῶν ), and warmed himself at the fire. ... And some began to spit on him, and to cover his face, and to buffet him, and to say unto him, Prophesy: and the servants (ὑπηρέται) did strike him with the palms of their hands.
John 7:32&45-46 The Pharisees heard that the people murmured such things concerning him; and the Pharisees and the chief priests sent officers (ὑπηρέτας ) to take him. ... 45 Then came the officers (ὑπηρέται) to the chief priests and Pharisees; and they said unto them, Why have ye not brought him? 46 The officers (ὑπηρέται) answered, Never man spake like this man.
John 18:3, 12, 18, 22, and 36
3 Judas then, having received a band [of men] and officers (ὑπηρέτας) from the chief priests and Pharisees, cometh thither with lanterns and torches and weapons. ... 12 Then the band and the captain and officers (ὑπηρέται) of the Jews took Jesus, and bound him, ... 18 And the servants (δοῦλοι) and officers (ὑπηρέται) stood there, who had made a fire of coals; for it was cold: and they warmed themselves: and Peter stood with them, and warmed himself. ... 22 And when he had thus spoken, one of the officers (ὑπηρετῶν) which stood by struck Jesus with the palm of his hand, saying, Answerest thou the high priest so? ... 36 Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants (ὑπηρέται) fight, that I should not be delivered to the Jews: but now is my kingdom not from hence.
John 19:6 When the chief priests therefore and officers (ὑπηρέται) saw him, they cried out, saying, Crucify [him], crucify [him]. Pilate saith unto them, Take ye him, and crucify [him]: for I find no fault in him.
Act 5:22&26 But when the officers (ὑπηρέται) came, and found them not in the prison, they returned, and told, ... Then went the captain with the officers (ὑπηρέταις), and brought them without violence: for they feared the people, lest they should have been stoned.
As you can see from this summary, the "officers" were the one who, when push came to shove, were expected to do the pushing and shoving. They were of a sufficiently low social class to be associating with the slaves in John 18:18. Moreover, they were the ones entrusted with moving convicts from the judge to the jail, presumably at the judge's order.
Within the context of the synagogue, however, there was a different connotation or use of the word. This sense is translated by the KJV translators as "minister," though presumably something like "assistant" might capture the sense well. This use (unlike the preceding ones) seems to have spilled across into Christianity.
We can see this in five passages, one of which is from the Jewish synagogue:
Luke 1:2 Even as they delivered them unto us, which from the beginning were eyewitnesses, and ministers (ὑπηρέται) of the word;
Luke 4:20 And he closed the book, and he gave [it] again to the minister (ὑπηρέτῃ), and sat down. And the eyes of all them that were in the synagogue were fastened on him.
Acts 13:5 And when they were at Salamis, they preached the word of God in the synagogues of the Jews: and they had also John to [their] minister (ὑπηρέτην).Acts 26:16 But rise, and stand upon thy feet: for I have appeared unto thee for this purpose, to make thee a minister (ὑπηρέτην) and a witness both of these things which thou hast seen, and of those things in the which I will appear unto thee;
1 Corinthians 4:1 Let a man so account of us, as of the ministers (ὑπηρέτας) of Christ, and stewards (οἰκονόμους) of the mysteries of God.
Like the role of deacon (servant), the role of "minister" is akin to that of a steward. It's not a position of absolutely no authority or importance, in fact in the case of the minister in Luke 4:20, he seems to have been entrusted with the physical care of the Isaiah scroll.
"Scribes"
There are so many references to one or more scribe (γραμματεύς grammateus) in the New Testament, that it would be hard to discuss them all in detail. The role was one associated with wisdom, erudition, and study. For example, Paul says:
1 Corinthians 1:20 Where is the wise (σοφός)? where is the scribe (γραμματεύς)? where is the disputer (συζητητὴς) of this world? hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this world?
That, however, is the lone use of the word after Acts 23.
"Elders"
The role of elder (πρεσβύτερος presbuteros) is referenced numerous times with reference to the Jewish order. The "tradition of the elders" (Matthew 15:2; Mark 7:3&5) and "For by it the elders obtained a good report" (Hebrews 11:2) seem to be exceptional uses of meaning something like "men of old times." Likewise, "elder son" in Luke 15:25 just means older son and "old men" in Acts 2:17 is just to distinguish from young men (probably the same is intended by Peter at 1 Peter 5:5 and 1 Timothy 5:1-2). (I omit the otherwise exceptional usage at John 8:9 as not original.)
In the Jewish system, the elders are consistently mentioned alongside the archpriests and/or scribes (Matthew 16:21, 21:23, 26:3,47,57,59, 27:1,3,12,&20, 28:11-12, Mark 8:31, 11:27, 14:43&53, 15:1, Luke 9:22, 20:1, 22:52, Acts 4:5,8&23, 6:12, Acts 23:14, 24:1, 25:15). Perhaps the lone exception to this principle is Luke 7:3, where a centurion sends to the "elders of the Jews" a request to heal his dying servant. The elders then asked Jesus to fulfil this request because the centurion loved Israel and had built a synagogue for them.
In Acts, we see a transition to references to Christian elders, now usually alongside Apostles and always in the plural:
Acts 11:30 Which also they did, and sent it to the elders (πρεσβυτέρους) by the hands of Barnabas and Saul.
Acts 14:23 And when they had ordained them elders (πρεσβυτέρους) in every church, and had prayed with fasting, they commended them to the Lord, on whom they believed.
Acts 15:2, 4, 6, 22-23
2 When therefore Paul and Barnabas had no small dissension and disputation with them, they determined that Paul and Barnabas, and certain other of them, should go up to Jerusalem unto the apostles and elders (πρεσβυτέρους) about this question. ... 4 And when they were come to Jerusalem, they were received of the church, and [of] the apostles and elders,(πρεσβυτέρων) and they declared all things that God had done with them. ... 6 And the apostles and elders (πρεσβύτεροι) came together for to consider of this matter. ... 22 Then pleased it the apostles and elders (πρεσβυτέροις), with the whole church, to send chosen men of their own company to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas; [namely], Judas surnamed Barsabas, and Silas, chief men among the brethren: 23 And they wrote [letters] by them after this manner; The apostles and elders (πρεσβύτεροι) and brethren [send] greeting unto the brethren which are of the Gentiles in Antioch and Syria and Cilicia:
Acts 16:4 And as they went through the cities, they delivered them the decrees for to keep, that were ordained of the apostles and elders (πρεσβυτέρων) which were at Jerusalem.
Acts 20:17 And from Miletus he sent to Ephesus, and called the elders (πρεσβυτέρους) of the church.
Acts 21:18 And the [day] following Paul went in with us unto James; and all the elders (πρεσβύτεροι) were present.
This pattern is consistent with Paul's James' and Peter's epistles:
1 Timothy 5:17, 19 Let the elders (πρεσβύτεροι) that rule well be counted worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in the word and doctrine. ... Against an elder (πρεσβυτέρου) receive not an accusation, but before two or three witnesses.
Titus 1:5 For this cause left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain elders (πρεσβυτέρους) in every city, as I had appointed thee:
James 5:14 Is any sick among you? let him call for the elders (πρεσβυτέρους) of the church; and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord:
1 Peter 5:1 The elders (Πρεσβυτέρους) which are among you I exhort, who am also an elder (συμπρεσβύτερος), and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that shall be revealed:
Notice that the one time Paul refers to an elder in the singular it is in the context of charging him. Likewise, Peter refers to himself as a co-elder. John likewise appears to refer to himself either as an elder:
2 John 1:1 The elder (ΠΡΕΣΒΥΤΕΡΟΣ) unto the elect lady and her children, whom I love in the truth; and not I only, but also all they that have known the truth;
3 John 1:1 The elder (ΠΡΕΣΒΥΤΕΡΟΣ) unto the wellbeloved Gaius, whom I love in the truth.
Finally, there are the twenty-four elders referred to (usually collectively) at Revelation 4:4,10, 5:5,6,8,11&14, 7:11,13&16, 14:3, and 19:4.
"Chief-Seats"
The New Testament also references the concept of a "chief seat" (πρωτοκαθεδρία) four times (three are synoptic parallel accounts). All four references are to chief-seats (plural). All four references are negative.
Matthew 23:1-12
1 Then spake Jesus to the multitude, and to his disciples, 2 Saying, The scribes and the Pharisees sit in Moses' (Μωϋσέως) seat (καθέδρας): 3 All therefore whatsoever they bid you observe, [that] observe and do; but do not ye after their works: for they say, and do not. 4 For they bind heavy burdens and grievous to be borne, and lay [them] on men's shoulders; but they [themselves] will not move them with one of their fingers. 5 But all their works they do for to be seen of men: they make broad their phylacteries, and enlarge the borders of their garments, 6 And love the uppermost rooms at feasts, and the chief seats (πρωτοκαθεδρίας) in the synagogues (συναγωγαῖς), 7 And greetings in the markets, and to be called of men, Rabbi, Rabbi. 8 But be not ye called Rabbi: for one is your Master, [even] Christ; and all ye are brethren. 9 And call no [man] your father upon the earth: for one is your Father, which is in heaven. 10 Neither be ye called masters: for one is your Master, [even] Christ. 11 But he that is greatest among you shall be your servant. 12 And whosoever shall exalt himself shall be abased; and he that shall humble himself shall be exalted.
The other synoptic accounts are terser:
Mark 12:38-40
38 And he said unto them in his doctrine, Beware of the scribes, which love to go in long clothing, and [love] salutations in the marketplaces, 39 And the chief seats (πρωτοκαθεδρίας) in the synagogues (συναγωγαῖς), and the uppermost rooms at feasts: 40 Which devour widows' houses, and for a pretence make long prayers: these shall receive greater damnation.
Luke is quite similar:
Luke 20:45-47
45 Then in the audience of all the people he said unto his disciples, 46 Beware of the scribes, which desire to walk in long robes, and love greetings in the markets, and the highest seats (πρωτοκαθεδρίας) in the synagogues (συναγωγαῖς), and the chief rooms at feasts; 47 Which devour widows' houses, and for a shew make long prayers: the same shall receive greater damnation.
Luke has one further mention of the chief-seats:
Luke 11:42-44
42 But woe unto you, Pharisees! for ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass over judgment and the love of God: these ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone. 43 Woe unto you, Pharisees! for ye love the uppermost seats (πρωτοκαθεδρίαν) in the synagogues (συναγωγαῖς), and greetings in the markets. 44 Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye are as graves which appear not, and the men that walk over [them] are not aware [of them].
Within the Christian community, ἄρχων (archon) is used only of Christ:
Revelation 1:5 And from Jesus Christ, [who is] the faithful witness, [and] the first begotten of the dead, and the prince (ἄρχων) of the kings of the earth. Unto him that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood,
Jesus disparaged Christian leadership from being archon-ic with comments like those found in Matthew 20:24-28.
Matthew 20:24-28
24 And when the ten heard [it], they were moved with indignation against the two brethren. 25 But Jesus called them [unto him], and said, Ye know that the princes (ἄρχοντες) of the Gentiles exercise dominion over (κατακυριεύουσιν) them, and they that are great exercise authority upon (κατεξουσιάζουσιν) them. 26 But it shall not be so among you: but whosoever will be great (μέγας) among you, let him be your minister (διάκονος); 27 And whosoever will be chief (πρῶτος) among you, let him be your servant (δοῦλος): 28 Even as the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
There is a slightly different wording, with the same general sense, in Mark:
Mark 10:41-45
41 And when the ten heard [it], they began to be much displeased with James and John. 42 But Jesus called them [to him], and saith unto them, Ye know that they which are accounted (δοκοῦντες) to rule over (ἄρχειν) the Gentiles exercise lordship over (κατακυριεύουσιν) them; and their great ones (μεγάλοι) exercise authority upon (κατεξουσιάζουσιν) them. 43 But so shall it not be among you: but whosoever will be great (μέγας) among you, shall be your minister (διάκονος): 44 And whosoever of you will be the chiefest (πρῶτος), shall be servant (δοῦλος) of all. 45 For even the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many.
Peter himself reiterates the Lord's point in describing the presbyters who "bishop" the flock of God:
1 Peter 5:1-4
1 The elders (Πρεσβυτέρους) which are among you I exhort, who am also an elder (συμπρεσβύτερος), and a witness of the sufferings of Christ, and also a partaker of the glory that shall be revealed: 2 Feed the flock of God which is among you, taking the oversight [thereof] (ἐπισκοποῦντες), not by constraint, but willingly; not for filthy lucre, but of a ready mind; 3 Neither as being lords over (κατακυριεύοντες) [God's] heritage, but being ensamples to the flock. 4 And when the chief Shepherd shall appear, ye shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away.
Likewise, Paul only uses ἄρχω (archo) to refer to Christ's rule:
Romans 15:12 And again, Esaias saith, There shall be a root of Jesse, and he that shall rise to reign over (ἄρχειν) the Gentiles; in him shall the Gentiles trust.
Instead, Peter and Paul use terms like "minister" (see above) and "steward" (οἰκονόμος oikonomos). The primary authoritative title after Apostle in the New Testament is "elder," which is used interchangeably with bishop (see my previous post).
